Conjunctions

What are conjunctions?

When used correctly, conjunctions always join like with like (i.e., they join words of the same kind).

Table of Contents

Types of Conjunction with Examples

"And," "but," and "or" are classified as coordinating conjunctions. However, this is just one type of conjunction. There are three types of conjunction:

(1) Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions join like with like. For example, they join a noun with another noun or an adjective with another adjective. The most common ones are "and," "but," and "or." There are seven in total: "for," "and," "nor," "but," "or," "yet," and "so." (You can remember them using the mnemonic F.A.N.B.O.Y.S.)

In these examples, the coordinating conjunctions are shaded, and the words being joined are in bold:

(2) Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join subordinate clauses to main clauses. Common examples are "although," "because," "if," "since," "unless," "until," and "while."

In these examples, the subordinating conjunctions are highlighted, and the subordinate clauses are in bold. Notice that the subordinating conjunctions are part of the subordinate clause.

(3) Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to join alternatives or equal elements. The most common pairs are "either/or," "neither/nor," and "not only/but also."

In these examples, the correlative conjunctions are shaded, and the words being joined are in bold:

Make sure your conjunctions join the same type of word. When conjunctions join the same type of word, the structure is described as "parallel."

Select the Type of Conjunction

It's your go! Select whether the conjunction in bold is a coordinating conjunction, a subordinating conjunction, or a correlative conjunction.

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More Examples of Conjunctions

Real-Life Examples of Coordinating Conjunctions

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Real-Life Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions

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Real-Life Examples of Correlative Conjunctions

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Can You Identify Conjunctions ?

Why Coordinating Conjunctions Are Important

There are two common questions related to coordinating conjunctions:

(Question 1) Do you put a comma before "and"?

Mostly no but sometimes yes. Unfortunately, the answer to this question isn't short. Here is a summary of the rules:

The Rule for Two Items

When "and" (or any coordinating conjunction) joins two items, don't use a comma.

The whole world agrees on this point. So far so good. However, if you think it helps your reader, you can use a comma. So, in summary, don't use a comma when "and" (or any other coordinating conjunction) joins two items unless it helps your readers.

There's an important exception to this rule though. It's important because it's common.

The Exception to the Rule for Two Items

When your coordinate conjunction joins two (or more) independent clauses (i.e., ones that could stand alone as individual sentences), then use a comma.

Compare that with this: Here are some real-life examples: Hopefully, that's all clear. But, there's a quirk: If the two "sentences" (i.e., the independent clauses) are both short, it is acceptable – for style purposes – to omit the comma. Look at this though:

The Rule for Three or More Items

When there are three or more list items, life starts getting a little more complicated because there is no unified position on whether to use a comma with the coordinating conjunction.

Well, actually, be flexibly consistent. If your chosen convention creates ambiguity, break the convention. There's only one 100% rule when it comes to the Oxford Comma: clarity trumps convention.

In other words, everyone (regardless of what convention they follow) should write this when they mean four people:

Remember that clarity comes first. Loyalty to, or hatred of, the Oxford Comma comes second.

(Question 2) Can you start a sentence with "And" or "But?

Despite what you may have been told at school, you can start a sentence with a conjunction like "And," "Or" and "But."

Bear in mind though that a conjunction at the start of a sentence looks quite striking, so don't do it too often (it gets annoying quickly). However, you should definitely keep this practice in your back pocket to create an impactful start to your sentence. Think of it like this:

"And" is an impactful way of saying "In addition"
"But" is an impactful way of saying "However"
"Or" is an impactful way of saying "Put another way"

Here are some real-life examples:

When a conjunction starts a sentence, you could argue it's not being used to join like terms but as a link between two sentences (i.e., like a conjunctive adverb such as "however," "consequently," and "therefore").

So, the real question is not whether you can use a coordinating conjunction to start a sentence but whether "and," "but" and "or" are conjunctive adverbs as well as coordinating conjunctions. And, it seems they are.

Therefore, should you put a comma after your conjunction like you do with a conjunctive adverb? Well, that's up to you. If you want a pause, go for it. If you don't, don't.

Read more about commas in lists.

Key Points for Coordinating Conjunctions

Why Subordinating Conjunctions Are Important

As a native English speaker, you don't need to worry about whether your subordinating conjunction is heading up a clause that establishes a time, a place, a reason, a condition, or a concession. You'll do that bit naturally.

The most common question related to subordinating conjunctions is whether to offset the subordinate clause with a comma or not. Here's the guidance:

When a subordinate clause starts a sentence, separate it from the main clause with a comma. In each example, the subordinating conjunction is shaded and the subordinate clause is bold.

These are often called "fronted subordinate clauses." A comma is used with a fronted subordinate clause because the comma makes it clear where the main clause starts.

When a subordinate clause ends a sentence, you can drop the comma.

There's a quirk though: You can use a comma for a deliberate pause.

As a rule, try to resist using a comma before a subordinating conjunction. However, if you want to create a pause for effect, then a comma can be used.

If you were told at school that a comma represents a pause, then your teacher was giving you reading advice not writing advice. There are specific rules on using commas and "to create a pause" isn't one of them, even though you'd likely get many right if you adopted that rule. That said, this is a time when a comma can be used to create a pause. That's why it's a quirk. It's also pretty common.

Let's complicate the issue a bit. The rule that states "do not use a comma when subordinate clause follows the independent clause" is not really the rule. The real rule is "use a comma if the clause is nonessential." The problem, however, is that it's really difficult to decide whether an adverbial clause is essential or nonessential. (It is much easier with adjective clauses.) As the vast majority of adverbial clauses are essential, it's pretty safe, but not entirely safe, to declare that a post-positioned (as it's called when it's at the back) subordinate clause isn't preceded by a comma. Read more about commas with subordinate (or dependent) clauses.

Key Points for Subordinating Conjunctions

Why Correlative Conjunctions Are Important

Correlative conjunctions are useful for keeping your writing succinct. They not only provide a succinct structure to say two things but also express how those two things relate to each other.

Generally, correlative conjunctions don't cause native English speakers too much grief, but there are four noteworthy issues associated with correlative conjunctions.

(Issue 1) Keep a parallel structure.

Correlative conjunctions come in pairs. You must use the same type of word after each one in the pair.

In truth, few people would describe a non-parallel structure with correlative conjunctions as a serious error, and you'd be unlikely to create ambiguity if you committed that "crime". Nevertheless, try to use parallel terms because, firstly, parallel structures are easier to read and, secondly, you will feel some comfort knowing your sentence structure is sound.

(Issue 2) Don't use commas with correlative conjunctions. (Beware the exceptions!)

Sometimes, writers are unsure whether to use a comma with correlative conjunctions. This question arises most often with the pairing "not only/but also." Here's the rule: Don't use commas with correlative conjunctions.

Unfortunately, it's a little bit more complicated than that. Here's the exception: If the second conjunction sits before an independent clause (i.e., words that could be a standalone sentence), then use a comma. It is rare for an independent clause to follow a correlative conjunction, but it does happen, especially with the pairing "not only/but also." Also, be mindful that you might find yourself using a comma before a correlative conjunction because the comma is needed for another reason.

(Issue 3) Be careful with subject-verb agreement.

When the pairing "either/or" or "neither/nor" features in the subject of a verb, the verb is singular if both elements are singular.

However, things get complicated if one of the elements is plural because there are two conventions:

Convention 1: The Proximity Rule. Under this convention, the element nearest the verb determines whether it's singular or plural.

Convention 2: The Logic Rule. Under this convention, if any of the elements are plural, the verb is plural. So, should you use the Proximity Rule or the Logic Rule if one of your elements is plural? Well, both are common, so the quick answer is pick one and be consistent. But, there's a far better answer: satisfy both rules at once. If one of your elements is plural, deliberately put it nearest to the verb. This all applies to "or" by itself (i.e., without "either").

(Issue 4) Don't forget that "neither/nor" plays a negative role.

Be aware that "neither/nor" plays a negative role in your sentence. Be careful not to use a double negative.

Remember that two negatives make a positive. So, the example above means that the flooding and the landslide were discussed, which would not have been the intended meaning. Here are two better options: Of course, two positives don't make a negative, but it can happen. Yeah, right.

Key Points for Correlative Conjunctions

Video Lesson

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This page was written by Craig Shrives.